The Secondary Education Commission 1952

Introduction 

The Secondary Education commission known as Mudaliar Commission was appointed by the government of India in term of their Resolution to bring changes in the present education system and make it better for the Nation. Dr. A. Lakshmanswami Mudaliar was the Vice-Chancellor of Madras University. 

Highlights

BASIC FACTS

The secondary education appointed by the government of India in term of their Resolution number F 9-5/52 B-1 dated 23 September 1952

The commission appointed by the government of India .

Dr A. Lakshmanswami Mudaliar (vice-chancellor madras university chairman).

AIMS:

*Development of democratic citizenship

*Development of personality

*Education for leadership.

*Improvement of vocational capability and efficiency

*Concept of world citizenship

EDUCATIONAL REFORMS:

Balance mixture of essay type, short answer type and objective type question

*Thought provoking question

*There should be no optional questions

*Question should be made to cover the maximum course

*In place of one paper of three hour duration in a particular subject their should be two paper each of three hour

*Class work be given some consideration

*External exams may be supplemented by vivavoce

*Marking norms should be carefully determined and prescribed

*Difficult, as well as easy question should place in question paper

*There should be no compulsory public examination

*The number of external exam should be reduce

*Cumulative records in respect of every child should be introduced and and maintained

*Symbol / Grades in place of numerical marking should be introduced

Appointment of secondary education commission (1952-53) 

The Union Government, appointed the Secondary Education Commission in 1952, under the chairmanship of Mudaliar on the suggestion of Tara Chand Committee and Central Education Advisory Board. Named after its chairman, this Commission is also known as Mudaliar Commission. 

The Commission thoroughly examined the then prevailing secondary education system and gave a number of suggestions for reforms. Important ones among these were the diversification of the curriculum, and setting up a large number of multi-purpose schools. The courses of study provided in these schools should aim at fulfilling the different aptitudes of the students. 

According to the recommendation of the Mudaliar Commission, the outlines for the diversification of curriculum were decided upon. Accordingly, the study of some compulsory subjects was made necessary for all students. 

Besides, the optional subjects were divided into seven groups for enabling students to get an opportunity to study as many subjects of their liking as they desired. An outline of this curriculum is given below: 

Compulsory Subjects: 

(1) Regional language or mother tongue or a combined course of classical language and mother tongue 

(2) One of the following languages: 

(A) (a) a classical language (b) besides Hindi one more Indian language (c) Advanced English (for those students who had earlier studied English) (d) Elementary English (for students studying it at the secondary stage) (e) besides English, another modern foreign language, (f) Hindi, (for those students whose mother tongue is not Hindi.) 

(B) (a) Curriculum of General Science with arithmetic for the first two years only, (b) General course of social sciences for the first two years only. 

(C) One of the following vocational subjects:- 

(1) Carpentry (2) Gardening (3) Printing (Spinning and Weaving), (5) Modeling (6) Laboratory test (7) Embroidery (8) Tailoring, embroidery and cutting and (9) Smithy. 

Optional Subjects: 

Optional subjects have been divided into seven groups. It has been made compulsory for a student to study any three subjects of a group. The groups and their subjects are as follows:— 

1. Science Group: 

The following subjects have been included in this group: 

(1) Chemistry (2) Physics (3) Biology, Zoology or Hygiene (4) Mathematics and (5) Geography. 

2. Humanities Group: 

(1) Mathematics (2) Home Science (3) Music (4) Geography (5) History (6) Economics or Civics (7) One language not taken from the group of compulsory subjects or a classical language and (8) Psychology or Logic. 

3. Home Science Group: 

This group has been prescribed for girl students. It is compulsory to offer three out of four subjects. The subjects are as under: 

(1) Home Nursing (2) Home Economics (3) Maternity and Child Welfare (4) Nutrition and Cookery. 

4. Commerce Group: 

(1) Commercial Geography or Economics and Elements of Civics (2) Commercial Practice (3) Short-hand and Type-writing and (4) Book-keeping. « 

5. Technical Group: 

(1) Practical Science (2) Elements of Electrical Engineering (3) Geometrical Drawing and Applied Mathematics and (4) Elements of Mechanical Engineering. 

6. Agricultural Group: 

(1) Botany and Agricultural Chemistry (2) Animal Husbandry (3) Gardening and Orchard keeping (4) General Agriculture. 

7. Fine Arts Group: 

The following six subjects have been included in this group: 

(1) Painting (2) Photography (3) Drawing and Sketching (4) Dance (5) Music and (6) History. 

Besides, the optional subjects were divided into seven groups for enabling students to get an opportunity to study as many subjects of their liking as they desired. An outline of this curriculum is given below: 

Observations of Mudaliar Commission 

Before the Secondary Education Commission Report, the course content failed to keep pace with the changes in the social, political, economic, and industrial conditions. 

It could not keep pace with the latest developments in Education. Theory and practice courses were bookish and theoretical, they encouraged cramming. The instructions become lifeless and monotonous. This has been reflected in the fol­lowing observations of Mudaliar Commission' 

(i) The existing curriculum is narrowly conceived. 

(ii) It is bookish and theoretical. 

(iii) It is over-crowded and the content is not rich and significant. 

(iv) It is the provision for practical work is not adequate. 

(v) It is not in accordance with the needs and capacities of adolescents. 

(vi) It is examination dominated. 

(vii) It does not include technical and vocational subjects, which are so essential for industrial and economic development of the country. 

The importance of inclusion of technical and vocational sub­jects was also emphasised in its report by Sapru Committee (1934). 

A thorough revision and diversification was undertaken on the basis of recommendations made by Mudaliar Commission. 

Commerce Education being so closely related with our life its curriculum has to be the nucleus of all the activities. It should, there­fore, include various subjects. At the middle level the following sub­jects are included: 

(i) Languages, (ii) Social Studies, (iii) General science, (iv) Mathematics, (v) Arts and Music, and (vi) Craft and physical education. 

At the secondary level there should be a few subjects to be taught as core subjects to be offered by all the students, the subjects to be included as core subjects are as follows: 

(i) Languages, (ii) Social studies, (iii) General Science, and (iv) Craft 

For commerce education a separate stream is provided at higher secondary stage and the following subjects are included for being taught in this stream: 

(i) Book-keeping and Accountancy, 

(ii) Elements of Commerce or Business Methods and Machinery, 

(iii) Business Correspondence, 

(iv) Economics, 

(v) Commercial Arithmetic, 

(vi) Short-hand, 

(vii) Type writing, 

(viii) Banking, and 

(ix) Work-experience etc. 

In certain states the courses provide option to select there or four of these subjects e.g. as in Maharastri which has been appreciated by Educationists. However, if this sort of freedom has to be given to the students then the schools should be fully equipped and staffed with the right type of teachers. 

Though all the subjects listed above are important for com­merce education but four subjects namely type writing, short-hand, book-keeping and general principles of commerce are basic to com­merce and knowledge of these subjects is imparted to all. 

For 'The persons joining specialised professions such as those of doctors, lawyers architects etc. The commerce education be im­ported on the basis of utility". 

It is thus desirable that the course content in commerce programmes is broadly classified into two categories as under: 

(i) Vocational Commerce Education, and 

(ii) General Commerce Education. 

Under the vocational commerce education the knowledge of following subjects be imparted: 

(i) Stenography and Sectarian practice, 

(ii) Book-keeping and accounts, 

(iii) Clerical and general office work, and 

(iv) Office practices. 

The course content for general commerce education should in­clude the following: 

(i) Consumer information-Guidance, 

(ii) Business administration and management, 

(iii) Economics, and 

(iv) Commercial geography etc. 

The content and organisation of commerce course is expected to fulfill the following imperative needs if the students: 

(i) It is capable of developing saleable skills amongst the pu­pils. 

(ii) It develops such attitudes that make the workers an intelligent and productive participant in economic life of the nation. 

(iii) It develops in the student a clear understanding of his rights and duties. 

(iv) It helps the student to understand, how to purchase and use goods and services intelligently? 

(v) It makes clear to the pupil the significance of the family for the individual and the society. 

(vi) It helps the student to understand the methods of science and scientific methods of doing business. 

(vii) It helps to develop the student's capacity of appreciating the functioning of an office, business and industry. 

(viii) It helps the students to develop respect for other persons. 

(ix) It encourages the student to develop and maintain good health so that he can devote himself to his studies whole heartedly. 

Curriculum in commerce in high school 

Keeping in mind various objectives of commerce education the fol­lowing four sequences have been suggested: 

(i) Stenographic sequence, 

(ii) Clerical sequence, 

(iii) Secterial sequence, and 

(iv) Book-keeping sequence. 

The following scheme of teaching in different sequences in vari­ous classes has been suggested: 

Critical appraisal of curriculum of commerce 

India is a vast country and has a number of states and Union Territo­ries. Education is in the concurrent list in Indian Constitution and so the states are free to have their independent education policies. How­ever following general procedure is followed for framing of curricu­lum in commerce by different states 

"A curriculum committee is committee by the State Board or Secondary Education. The members of the committee are generally experts, who are nominated by the Board The members meet from time to time and prescribe the courses of study and curriculum in the commerce subjects. 

There is also a commerce committee of university teachers which recommend the courses of study. Their recommenda­tions are examined at various stages in the Board and then the courses of study are prescribed. 

There are some defects in the system of selection of courses and curriculum in commerce stream. Experienced school teachers are not represented. The business circles, for which learners are prepared, are also not represented. The result is that the courses of study suffer in quality and utility. 

One of the recommendation made by kothari commission pro­vides for the introduction of specialisation from class XI, but the boards of Secondary Education of most of the Indian states have introduced general education upto class X and specialisation from class XI. Commerce is also being incorporated as a subject of study and in several states it has already been done so in class XI and XII. 

According to the growing needs of the economy and the em­ployment opportunities available in the next decade, there is need of bringing about changes in the patterns and composition of the com­merce programme. 

At present, of the two sequences (i.e. Book-keeping sequence and stenography sequence) only one sequence predominates (i.e. Book­keeping sequence) and the other sequence (i.e. stenography sequence) remains almost neglected. Even if it has been introduced in a very few schools the programme suffers considerably on vocational grounds. 

Before finalisation of any syllabus in Commerce it is desirable to have a good deal of discussion among teachers, educators, planners and administrators so that every state may adopt it, maintaining uni­formity in syllabus and standard of achievement in different sequences. 

Status of commerce education in secondary schools in India 

In India commerce education first started at the secondary level but its real growth and development took place at the college level, upto the middle of twentieth century. In India commerce was not considered as a separate discipline and it was reduced to an insignificant item of the twin departments Economics and Commerce, in which Economics had an upper hand. It hindered any real progress in the field of commerce for a pretty long time. Only after the report of Mudaliar Commission an expansion took place in commerce education. The multipurpose Higher Secondary School were opened and practical subjects were introduced in many fields including commerce. 

To start with in Commerce education was introduced such subjects as letter writing, Business Methods, Shorthand and Type­writing. Later on many more subjects such as Book-keeping Economics, Accountancy, Commercial Law, Taxation etc. were introduced. 

Adopting the recommendation of Dr. V.K.R. V. Rao Committee national Diploma in Commercial practice was started with a view to prepare qualified and skilled persons needed by the growing economy in the country. 

With the rapid growth in the field of trade, commerce and industry, the need for proper education and right type of Commerce teachers was felt and to meet the needs of teachers of practical sub­jects a necessity was felt to have some special type of institutes to provide for this type of institution N.C.E.RT. and Regional Colleges of Education did a commendable job, till about 1963 no facilities existed for providing training facilities in the field of commerce but now such training is available through regular training, in service courses, summer-cum-correspondence courses etc. but even now the practical aspect of commerce education programme is not quite satis­factory. 

An effort is needed to accelerate the teaching or shorthand and type-writing etc. in views of an enormously increasing demand in these fields. 

There is a talk of vocationalisation and work-experience in Education. It is thus hoped that in recent future the commerce educa­tion will be much more oriented in favour of practical subjects. It would help to achieve the main objective of commerce education i.e. development of employable skills 

Recommendations of Secondary Education Commission

The Commission has defined the aims of secondary education in the following manner:.

1. To Produce Ideal Citizens 

The Commission has realised that no nation can progress without a national feeling along with social feeling. Therefore, it has laid down that the aim of secondary education should be to produce such ideal citizens who imbued with strong national and social feeling are prepared to shoulder their responsibilities and duties and can easily offer any sacrifice for the sake of their nation 

Such citizens should have co-operative feeling directed towards universal brotherhood. While describing the national spirit the Commission has sub-divided it into three parts: 

(a) In the first part the Commission has explained the concept of national feeling. Then it has urged that the students of the country should have faith in the greatness and importance of culture of their country and they should feel proud of the same 

(b) In the second part the Commission suggests that the student should himself make a self-study and analyze his own positive and negative traits with a view to improve his character and personality. 

(c) In the third part it has been emphasized by the Commission that one should be prepared to make any sacrifice for the nation. 

2. To Develop Capacity for Earning Money 

The Commission is of the view that after having received secondary education one should be able to earn enough for maintaining himself. For developing this capacity vocational subjects should be introduced in the curriculum. 

3. Quality of Leadership 

Secondary education should develop the quality of leadership in students. This quality is very necessary for the sake of democracy and for the development of the country as a whole. 

4. To Develop Human Virtues 

Man is a social animal. So he should have the spirit of co-operation, discipline, humility, love, kindness and the feeling of brotherhood. The curriculum must have such subjects which may inculcate these virtues in students. Science, literature, fine arts, humanities, music and dance are some of such subjects. 

Duration of Secondary Education 

The Commission has recommended that the secondary education should be for children between 11 to 17 years of age. It has divided this seven years’ education into two parts-(1) Junior High School stage for three years and (2) High School for four years. 

INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION, 1964-66

Introduction:

Indian Education Commission (1964-1966), popularly known as Kothari Commission, was an ad hoc commission set up by the Government of India to examine all aspects of the educational sector in India, to evolve a general pattern of education and to advise guidelines and policies for the development of education in India. It was formed on 14 July 1964 under the chairmanship of

Daulat Singh Kothari, then chairman of the University Grants Commission. 

It consisted of sixteen members, eleven being Indians and five foreign experts. In addition, the Commission had the benefit of discussion with a number of internationally known consultants in the educational as well as scientific field. 

The terms of reference of the commission was to formulate the general principles and guidelines for the development of education from primary level to the highest and advise the government on a standardized national pattern of education in India. However, the medical and legal studies were excluded from the purview of the commission. The tenancy of the commission was from 1964 to 1966 and the report was submitted by the commission on 29 June 1966. 

The main task of the Commission was to advise the Government on the national pattern of education and on the general policies for the development of education at all stages-ranging from the primary to post-graduate stage and in all its aspects besides examining a host of educational problems in their social and economic context. 

"This House is of opinion that a Committee of Members of Parliament be appointed to go into the question on National Policy on education in all its aspects and to prepare a plan accordingly for the next three plan periods, and also to suggest suitable machinery for its implementation." 

Government Resolution setting up the Education Commission, July 14, 1964. The Commission submitted its report to the Government on June 29,1966. It was laid on the Table of the House on August 29, 1966.The principal recommendations of the Commission are given in Appendix I. The main features of the Commission's report were as follows: 

(i) Introduction of work-experience which includes manual work, production experience, etc. and social service as integral part of general education at more or less all level of education. 

(ii) Stress on moral education and inculcation of a sense of social responsibility. Schools should recognize their responsibility in facilitating the transition of youth from the work of school to the world of work and life. 

(iii) Vocationalization of secondary education. 

(iv) Strengthening of the centres of advance study and setting up of a small number of major universities which would aim at achieving highest international standards. 

(v) Special emphasis on the training and quality of teachers for schools 

(vi) Education for agriculture and research in agriculture and allied sciences should be given a high priority in the scheme of educational reconstruction. Energetic and imaginative steps are required to draw a reasonable proportion of talent to go in for advance study and research in agriculture science. 

(vii) Development of quality or pace-setting institutions at all stages and in all sectors. 

The Commission observed that mother-tongue had a pre-eminent claim as the medium of education at the school and college stages. Moreover, the medium of education in school and higher education should generally be the same. The regional languages should, therefore, be adopted as the media of education in higher education. 

The Commission further observed that the public demand for secondary and higher education had increased and would continue to increase in future. It was, therefore, necessary to adopt a policy of selective admissions to higher secondary and university education in order to bridge the gap between the public demand and available facilities. 

The Commission was of the view that the social segregation in schools should be eliminated by the adoption of the neighbourhood social concept at the lower primary stage under which all children in the neighbourhood will be required to attend the school in the locality. 

NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION COMMITTEE OF MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT 

A Committee of Members of Parliament on Education was constituted by the Government of India on April 5, 1967, with the following terms of reference: 

(i) to consider the report of the Education Commission; 

(ii) to prepare the draft of a statement on the National Policy on Education for the consideration of Government of India;and 

(iii) to identify the programme for immediate action. 

The Committee scrutinized only the major recommendations of the Education Commission along with the comments of the State Government and others thereon. 

The Committee's general approach to the problem differed from that of the Commission in three important ways. First, the Committee did not accept the recommendations of the Commission for the creation of five or six 'major' universities or for upgrading 10 per cent of the institutions at all levels to optimum standards. 

The committee believed that better results could be obtained if efforts were made to maintain at least the minimum standards in all institutions and special additional assistance was offered, on the basis of proper criteria, to those institutions which showed high level of performance and promise. Secondly, they placed a greater emphasis on expansion of facilities than the Commission had done, especially at the school stage. 

The Committee, therefore, did not agree with the Commission's proposal that a system of selective admission should be adopted at the higher secondary and undergraduate stages. They suggested methods for diverting a large proportion of students into different walks of life at the end of the higher secondary stage which would necessarily reduce pressure on access to higher education. The committee further desired that every effort should be made to provide admission to institutions of higher education to all eligible students who desired to study further. 

Thirdly the Committee did not favour several recommendations of the Commission whose main objective was to create certain new administrative structure or changes in the existing ones. In the opinion of the Committee, such programmes would lead to increasing bureaucratisation and increase in unproductive expenditure. 

Subject to the above observations, the Committee accepted several of the major recommendations of the Commission, some with modifications or changes in priority. They also added new recommendations in certain areas where the ground was not fully covered by the report of the Commission. The report of the members of Parliament was laid on the Table of the Lok Sabha on July 25, 1967. 

The salient recommendations of the Committee are: 

(i) The unhealthy social segregation that now takes place between the schools for the rich and those for the poor should be ended; and the primary schools should be made the common schools of the nation by making it obligatory on all children, irrespective of cast, creed, community, religion, economic condition or social status, to attend the primary school in their neighbourhood. 

(ii) The development of a proper language policy can greatly assist in strengthening national unity. The key programme will be to develop all Indian languages and to adopt them as media of education at all stages. 

(iii) At the secondary stage (classes I-X) the regional language should ordinarily be the medium of education. Adequate safeguards should be provided for linguistic minorities. In class XI_XII, a pupil should study at least one language of his choice in addition to the medium of education. 

While facilities to study languages , on an optional basis, should be adequately provided at the university-level, the study of no language should be made compulsory unless such study is an essential part of a prescribed course. 

(iv) Hindi is already largely in use as a link language. The educational system should contribute to the acceleration of this progress in order to facilitate the movement of students and teachers and to strengthen national unity. 

(v) Science education and research should be developed on priority basis. Great emphasis should be placed on the development of education for agriculture and industry. In technical education programmes of qualitive improvement should be stressed. 

(vi) Work experience should be an integral part of general education at the school stage. Work with hands will help the young to develop insights into productive processes and use of science and inculcate in them respect for manual labour and habits of hard and responsible work. 

(vii) There should be a broadly uniform educational structure in all parts of the country. The first step is to create the Ten Year School providing a common pattern of general education for all children. The national policy should be to ultimately make this period of ten years free and compulsory for all children. The next stage, the higher secondary should be uniformally raised to two years in all parts of the country under a phased programme. The duration of the course for the first degree in arts, commerce and science should be three years after the higher secondary stage. 

(ix) Plans to accelerate the spread of literacy should be prepared and intensively implemented. 

(x) Educational expansion should be accompanied by simultaneous efforts to raise substantially the standards of education and to keep them continuously rising. 

(xi) There is an urgent need to upgrade and improve school curricula, to increase their knowledge content and to provide adequately for the development of skills,and the inculcation of right interests, attitudes and values. Similar steps are also needed at the university stage. 

(xii) Regarding examination reform, attention should be concentrated on three major areas: reduction of the dominance of external examination; introduction of reforms which would make them more valid and realistic; and the adoption of a good system of internal evaluation. 

RESOLUTION ON NATIONAL POLICY 

As a result of discussions on the recommendations of the Education Commission and the report of the Committee of Members of Parliament, a Resolution on National Policy on Education was formally issued by the Government of India on July 24,1966 (Appendix II). The Resolutions enumerated seventeen principles to guide the development of education in the years ahead. These are: 

(i)Free and compulsory Education: Free and Compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14 sho 

(ii) Status, Emoluments and Education of Teachers: Teacher education, particularly in service education, should received high priority. Teachers must be accorded an honoured place in society, their emoluments, and other service conditions should be adequate, and their academic freedom should be guaranteed. 

(iii) Development of Language: The energetic development of Indian Language and literature is a sine qua non for education and cultural development. Unless this is done, the creative energies of the people would not be released; standards of education will not improve; knowledge will not be spread to the people and the gulf between the intelligentsia and the masses will remain, if not widen further. 

The regional language already used as media of education at the primary and secondary stages, should be urgently adopted at the university state. At the secondary stage every child should learn three languages; the languages of his region, Hindi or another Indian language if the language of his region is Hindi and English. Hindi should become the link language, a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India. 

For its cultural value the study of Sanskrit should be specially encouraged. Special emphasis needs to be laid on the study of English and other international languages. World knowledge is growing at a tremendous pace,especially in science and technology. India must not only keep up this growth but should also make her own significant contributions to it. 

(iv) Equalisation of Education Opportunity: Regional imbalances should be corrected and good educational facilities should be provided in rural and other backward areas. To promote social cohesion and national integration, a common school system should be adopted; this should not, however, affect the minority rights guaranteed by the Constitution. The education of girls should receive emphasis, as should education among the backward classes. 

(v) Identification of Talent: For the cultivation of excellence, it is necessary that talent in diverse fields should be identified at as early an age as possible and every stimulus and opportunity given for its full development. 

(vi) Work-experience and National Service: The school and the community should be brought closer through suitable programmes of mutual service and support. Work- experience and national service including participation in meaningful and challenging programme of community service and national reconstruction should accordingly become an integral part of education. 

(vii) Science Education and Research: These should receive high priority, and science and mathematics should be an integral part of general education till the end of the school stage. 

(viii) Education for Agriculture and industry: This requires special emphasis. There should be at least one agricultural university in every State and the other universities selected departments may be strengthened for the study of one or more aspects of agriculture. Technical education and research should be related closely to industry. 

There should be continuous review of the agricultural, industrial,and other technical manpower need and a proper balance should be maintained between the output of the educational institutions and employment opportunities. 

(ix) Production of Books: The quality of books should be improved and immediate steps should be taken for the production of high quality text-books for schools and universities. Efforts should be made to have a few basic text-books throughout the country. Special attention should be given to books for children and to university level books in Indian languages. 

(x) Examination: A major goal of examination reform should be to improve the reliability and validity of examinations and to make evaluation a continuous process. 

(xi) Secondary Education: Facilities for secondary education should be extended expeditiously to areas and classes which have been denied these in the past. Facilities for technical and vocational education needs to be increased, diversified and related closely to employment opportunities. 

(xii) University Education: 

(a) The number of whole time students admitted to a college or university departments should be determined with reference to the laboratory, library and other facilities and to the strength of the staff. 

(b) New universities should be established only in case of proved necessity after adequate provisions of funds and with due care for ensuring proper standards. 

(c) The organisation of post-graduate courses and their standards of training and research need to be improved. 

(d) Centres of advanced study should be strengthened and a small number of clusters of centres aiming at the highest possible standards in research and training should be established. 

(e) Research in universities requires increased support, and the research institutions should, as far as possible, function within the fold of universities of in intimate association with them. 

(xiii) Part-time education and Correspondence Courses: These should be developed on a large scale at the university stage and also be provided for secondary school students, teachers, and agricultural, industrial and other workers. 

(xiv) Spread of Literacy and Adult Education: 

(a) The liquidation of mass illiteracy is necessary not only for promoting people's participation in the working of democratic institutions and for accelerating programmes of production, especially in agriculture, but also for quickening the tempo of national development in general. Employees in large commercial, industrial and other concerns should be made functionally literate as early as possible.....Teachers and students should be actively involved in organising literacy campaigns, especially as part of the Social and national Service Programme. 

(b) The education of young farmers and the training of youth for self-employment should have high priority. 

(xv) Games and Sports: Playing fields and other facilities for developing a nation wide programme of physical education should be provided on a priority basis. 

(xvi) Education of minorities: Every effort should be made not only to protect the rights of minorities but actively to promote their educational interests. 

(xvii) The Educational Structure: A broadly uniform educational structure of ten years' general education in schools, followed by two years of higher secondary stage 

three years ' course for the first degree should be adopted in all parts of the country. 

The Resolution on National Policy on Education further stated: 

"The reconstruction of education on these lines will need additional outlay. The aim should be gradually to increase the investment in education so as to reach a level of expenditure of six per cent of the national income as early as possible". 

The national policy on education, 1968 has been accepted by the Government as guiding principle for all educational development in the country supplemented by the guidelines adopted in the Sixth plan document. 

The programmes spelt out in the national policy on education are being implemented by the Central and the state governments with such modifications and adjustments as are warranted from time to time by the socio-economic conditions in the country. 

Most significant of these programmes are universalisation of elementary education and eradication of adult illiteracy. Both these from part of Centre's minimum needs programme as well as the Revised 20-Point Programme. 

For the discharge of its specific responsibility, the Union Ministry of Education has been acting directly by itself and through its institutions like the University Grants Commission, National Council of Educational Research and Training, etc. The aims and objectives of these institutions have been, by and large, to bring about improvement of standards of education and training at various levels or to promote specific areas of education like languages, production of books etc. 

Priority has been given by the Government to the programme of universalisation of elementary education with emphasis on programmes for the weaker sections including girls, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, etc. Another important priority area in education is promotion of adult education. In regard to other sectors, stress is being laid on qualitative improvement of education. 

Especially the technical and higher education, development of youth activities, vocationalisation of secondly education, development of regional languages, strengthening of the monitoring and evaluation machinery for the effective implementation of plan programmes, etc. 

The then Minister of Education (Dr. Triguna Sen) on November,14 1967 moved Government Motions for discussion in Lok Sabha of the report of the Education Commission and the report of the committee of Members of Parliament.7 Participating in the discussion members stressed that the natural talent of the student could be unfolded only through his mother-tongue which had been recognised by the Commission. 

The concept of the neighbourhood schools was also welcomed by some members. The emphasis laid by the Commission on work experience and compulsory service scheme was also commended. They considered it advisable that in the case of primary and secondary education the medium should be regional language all over the country. Members suggested that higher education should also be imparted through the regional language. For raising the quality of education, they pleaded for improving the quality of teachers. Promising people, they felt, would be attracted to the profession if the emoluments and the status of teachers were raised. 

Replying to the discussion on December 6, 1967, the Minister said that one of the major recommendations of the Education Commission was that the Government should issue a statement on the national policy on education which should provide guidance to the State Governments and local authorities in preparing and implementing educational plans in their areas. He informed the House that the Government had decided to give the widest possible opportunity to all concerned to express their views and opinions and after examining them critically to issue a comprehensive statement on the 'National Policy on Education'.8 

PRINCIPAL RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE EDUCATION COMMISSION, 1964-66 

A. Education and National Objectives 

Education and National Development: The most important and urgent reform needed in education is to related it to the life, needs and aspirations of the people and thereby make it a powerful instrument of social, economic and cultural transformation necessary for realisation of the national goal. For this purpose the following five-fold programme has been suggested; 

(a) Relating education to productivity; 

(b) Strengthening social and national integration through educational programmes; 

(c) Consolidation of democracy through education; 

(d) Modernisation of society through awakening of curiosity,development of attitudes and values and building up certain essential skills. 

(a) Education and productivity: The following programmes are needed to relate productivity to education: 

(i) Science education should be an integral part of school education and ultimately become a part of all courses at University stage; 

(ii) Work experience to become an integral part of all education; 

(iii) Every effort should be made to orient work experience to technology and industrialisation and the application of science to productive processes, including agriculture; and 

Inclusive Education

Inclusion is an educational approach and philosophy that provides all students with community membership and greater opportunities for academic and social achievement. Inclusion is about making sure that each and every student feels welcome and that their unique needs and learning styles are attended to and valued. It strives to address the learning needs of children with special needs, with a particular focus on those who are subject to being isolated and excluded. 

Inclusive education is based on the simple idea that every child and family is valued equally and deserves the same opportunities and experiences. Inclusive education is about children with disabilities – whether the disability is mild or severe, hidden or obvious – participating in everyday activities, just like they would if their disability were not present. It’s about building friendships, membership and having opportunities just like everyone else. 

Inclusive education means that all students attend and are welcomed by their neighbourhood schools in age-appropriate, regular classes and are supported to learn, contribute and participate in all aspects of the life of the school. 

The philosophy behind inclusive education is to promote opportunities for all children to participate, learn and have equal treatment, irrespective of their mental or physical abilities. 

It happens when children with and without disabilities participate and learn together in the same classes. Research shows that when a child with disabilities attends classes alongside peers who do not have disabilities, good things happen. 

For a long time, children with disabilities were educated in separate classes or in separate schools. People got used to the idea that special education meant separate education. But we now know that when children are educated together, positive academic and social outcomes occur for all the children involved. 

Hence, now a day, inclusive education becomes a key reason for integrating a special child with the mainstream. According to Dr. Mithu Alur, “Children need to be with other children. Sending them to a school for disabled will not help.” Inclusive schools have to be well-equipped in all aspects to cater and deliver quality education for all children. 

Thus, inclusive education is a child’s right, not a privilege. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act clearly states that all children with disabilities should be educated with non-disabled children their own age and have access to the general education curriculum. 

APPROACHES IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Approaches to Educational Technology

 According technology is the study and ethical practice of creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources. The term educational technology is often associated with, and encompasses, instructional theory and learning theory.  Instructional technology is "the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning"

According to the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) Definitions and Terminology Committee educational technology includes other systems used in the process of developing human capability. Educational technology includes, mainly three approaches-Hardware, Software and Syste

HARDWARE APPROACH:

The hardware approach is based on the application of engineering principles for developing electro-mechanical equipment for instructional purposes. Motion pictures, tape recorders, television, teaching machines, computers are called educational hardware.

Hardware approach mechanises the process of teaching so that teachers would be able to deal with more students with less expenditures in educating them.

Human knowledge has three aspects:

§  Preservation,

§  Transmission and

§  Development.

The history of preservation of the knowledge is believed to exist since the printing machines started. The knowledge is preserved with these machines in the form of books which are shelved in the libraries, tape recorders and films.

The second aspect of human knowledge is its transmission. A teacher can impart knowledge himself to his pupils. Now a days, transmission of the knowledge is supported by machine like mike, radio and television. With these, thousands of pupils enjoy this home-delivery of such benefits.

The third aspect of human knowledge is its development. For this aspect, provisions are made for research work. In the research programmes, the main function is the collection and analysis of data. For this purpose, presently the researcher uses the electronic machines and computers. Hence, all the three aspects of knowledge allow the use of machines. In short, the teaching process has been mechanized. The mechanization of teaching process is termed as the Hardware Approach.

SOFTWARE APPROACH:

The software approach used the principles of psychology for building in the learners a complex repertory of knowledge or modifying his behaviour. It originates from behavioural sciences and their applied aspects concerning psychology of learning. Psychology of learning provides solid technology for bringing desirable behavioural changes in the pupils and thus serves the cause of education of laying down definite instructional procedure, teaching behaviour and behaviour modification devices. The pioneering work in software approach was done by Skinner and other behaviourists. The programmes which such a technology produces are often called software. Software Approach is also termed as Instructional Technology or Teaching Technology or Behavioural Technology. Newspapers, books, magazines, educational games, flash cards may also form part of software. Software approach is characterised by task analysis, writing precise objectives, selection of appropriate learning strategies, immediate reinforcement of responses and constant evaluation.

Hence Software Approach is concerned with teaching objectives in behavioural terms, principles of teaching, methods of teaching, reinforcement of instructional system, feedback, reviews and evaluation. Software approach tries to develop all the three basic components of technology, i.e. Input, Process and Output.

HARDWARE & SOFTWARE TECHNOLOGIES

Hardware Technology	Software Technology
1. Hardware technology has its origin in physical sciences and applied engineering.	1. Software technology has its origin in behavioural sciences and their applied aspects concerning psychology of learning
2. Here we are more concerned with the production and utilization of audio visual aid material and sophisticated instruments and mass media for helping teacher and learners in their task.	2. Here we try to make use of psychology of learning for the production and utilization of software techniques and materials in terms of learning material, teaching-learning strategies and other devices for smoothening the task of teaching learning.
3. It tries to adopt product-oriented approach. What is produced through software technology in the shape of teaching-learning material and strategy in being utilized by the hardware instruments and gadgets for effective teaching learning.	3. It tries to adopt a process-oriented technique or approach for the production of teaching-learning material and strategies. The material produced here is made available for being used by the hardware application.
4. It is based on the concept of service meaning hereby that it provides services in the field of education much in the same way as provided by telephone, electric heater, bulb etc. in the sphere of our day to day life. In this sense hardware technology clearly stands for making use of technology in education.	4. Software technology does not provide direct services to its users as provided by hardware technology and applied engineering. It helps in the production of software material being used by the hardware applications and gadgets for delivering their service to the users i.e. teachers and learners.
5. As examples of the appliances and gadgets being used in hardware technology service we can name radio, television, tape recorder, video, slides and film projectors, teaching machines and computer etc.	5. As examples of the material produced through software technology we can name, programmed learning material teaching learning strategy on psychology of learning (put into practice in the shape of charts, pictures, models, slides filmstrips, audio and video cassettes, software packages etc.)
6. Hardware technology needs the services of software technology for its use and functioning. It can’t go without the aid of software technology e.g. computer hardware in the shape of a machine like device is of no use if it does not make use of software services both for its operation as a machine and its multi-dimensional utilities. The use of application and utility software is in fact must for taking any service from the hardware technology of the computer.	6. Software technology proves most useful and productive in the case if it is assisted and made into use by the hardware applications and gadgets. However, it can go alone for delivering its services to the users without calling aid from the hardware technology i.e. you can make use of programmed learning material a graph a text, etc. directly for the individualized as well as group instructions.
7. Hardware technology has its mass appeal and utilization. It can contribute a lot in handing over the educational benefits to masses with greater case and economy.	7. Software technology has no such wide application and appeal to masses as found in the case of hardware appliances like radio, telephone, computer application, etc.
8. Hardware technology has resulted in improving the efficiency of educational, means and reducing the cost of education. A teacher may handle a big class with the help of hardware appliances like microphone, slide and film projectors etc.	8. Software technology also works for increasing the efficiency of the teachers as well as learning. However, it lags behind in the task of improving efficiency and reducing the cost of education.

SYSTEMS APPROACH:

System approach is a systematic attempt to coordinate all aspects of a problem towards specific objectives. Webster’s dictionary defines a system as “a regularly interacting or independent group of items forming a unified whole.” The characteristics of a system of may be explained with the help of an example – various parts of the digestive system may be called as components of digestive system. Every component of the digestive system contributes to as supports in functioning of the digestive system as a whole.

In the context of education, system is a unit as a whole incorporating all its aspects and parts, namely, pupils, teachers, curriculum, content and evaluation of instructional objectives. The teaching-learning process is viewed as communication and control taking place between the components of a system. In this case, the system is composed of a teacher, a student and a programme of instruction, all in a particular pattern of interaction.

The System Approach focuses first upon the learner and then course content, learning experiences and effective media and instructional strategies. Such a system incorporates within itself the capability of providing continuous self-correction and improvement. It is concerned with all elements of instruction including media, including hardware and software. Its purpose is to ensure that the components of the organic whole will be available with the proper characteristics at the proper time to contribute to the total system fulfilling the objectives.

In the systems approach to instruction, the teacher has to plan completely the utilization of selected resource material and the classroom activities. The teacher should have a good overall view of the subject, know his/her limitations, know all about his/her pupils and the individual differences in their learning capacities and plan accordingly. The system approach involves continuous evaluation of learning outcomes and utilization of knowledge gained by analysis of results of evaluation to suitably modify the plan of approach to achieve the stated objectives.

Major steps in the systems approach in education are:

1. Formulating of specific instructional objectives to be achieved and  defining instructional goals,
2. Deciding appropriate media to achieve these goals,
3. Defining learner characteristics and requirements,
4. Selecting appropriate methods suitable for effective learning to  take place,
5. Selecting appropriate learning experiences from available  alternatives,
6. Selecting appropriate materials and tools required,
7. Assigning appropriate personal roles for teachers, students and  supporting staff,
8. Implementing the programme,
9. Evaluating the outcome in terms of original objectives measured in  student performance and
10. Revising to improve efficiency of the system to improve students’  learning.

ADVANTAGES OF SYSTEMS APPROACH

i. Systems approach helps to identify the suitability of the resource material to achieve the specific goal.

ii. Technological advance could be used to provide integration of machines, media and people for attaining the defined goal.

iii. It helps to assess the resource needs, their sources and facilities in relation to quantities, time and other factors.

iv. It permits an orderly introduction of components demonstrated to be required for systems success in terms of student learning.

v. It avoids rigidity in plan of action as continuous evaluation affords desired beneficial changes to be made.

LIMITATIONS OF SYSTEMS APPROACH

i. Resistance to change. Old ways are difficult to erase. There is always resistance to any new method or approach.

ii. Involves hard work. Systems approach requires hard and continuous work on the part of school personnel. Some are not prepared for the extra load.

iii. Lack of understanding. Teachers and administrators are still not familiar with systems approach. Though it has been successfully implemented industry, it has still to make headway in education.

CONCLUSION. From the above discussion, it is understood that system approach is a systematic attempt to coordinate all aspects of a problem towards specific objectives. In education, this means planned and organised use of all available learning resources, including audio-visual media, to achieve the desirable learning objectives by the most efficient means possible.